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Humans started hunting reindeer in both the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods, and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from the Last Glacial Period until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as Jotunheimen, it is still possible to find remains of stone-built trapping pits, guiding fences and bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the Migration Period, although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the Stone Age. DNA analysis indicates that reindeer were independently domesticated at least twice: in Fennoscandia and Western Russia (and possibly also Eastern Russia). [226] Reindeer have been herded for centuries by several Arctic and sub-Arctic peoples, including the Sámi, the Nenets and the Yakuts. They are raised for their meat, hides and antlers and, to a lesser extent, for milk and transportation. Reindeer are not considered fully domesticated, as they generally roam free on pasture grounds. In traditional nomadic herding, reindeer herders migrate with their herds between coastal and inland areas according to an annual migration route and herds are keenly tended. However, reindeer were not bred in captivity, though they were tamed for milking as well as for use as draught animals or beasts of burden. Millais (1915), [95] for example, shows a photograph (Plate LXXX) of an "Okhotsk Reindeer" saddled for riding (the rider standing behind it) beside an officer astride a steppe pony that is only slightly larger. Domestic reindeer are shorter-legged and heavier than their wild counterparts. [ citation needed] In Scandinavia, management of reindeer herds is primarily conducted through siida, a traditional Sámi form of cooperative association. [227] Bennike, Ole (1 January 1988). "Review: The Greenland Caribou - Zoogeography, Taxonomy and Population Dynamics, by Morten Meldgaard". Arctic. 41 (2): 146–147. doi: 10.14430/arctic1984. ISSN 1923-1245.

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Reindeer are osteophagous; they are known to gnaw and partly consume shed antlers as a dietary supplement and in some extreme cases will cannibalise each other's antlers before shedding. [181] There is also some evidence to suggest that on occasion, especially in the spring when they are nutritionally stressed, [182] they will feed on small rodents (such as lemmings), [183] fish (such as the Arctic char ( Salvelinus alpinus)), and bird eggs. [184] Reindeer herded by the Chukchis have been known to devour mushrooms enthusiastically in late summer. [185]

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The boreal woodland caribou ( R. t. caribou), lives in the boreal forest of northeastern Canada: the Labrador or Ungava caribou of northern Quebec and northern Labrador ( R. t. caboti), and the Newfoundland caribou of Newfoundland ( R. t. terranovae) have been found to be genetically in the woodland caribou lineage. [11] [12] Kholodova, M.V.; Kolpashchikov, L.A.; Kuznetsova, M.V.; Baranova, A.I. (2011). "Genetic diversity of wild reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) of Taimyr: analysis of polymorphism of the control region of mitochondrial DNA". Biology Bulletin. 38: 42–49. doi: 10.1134/S1062359011010067. S2CID 9180267. There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size. There are large population differences among individual herds and the size of individual herds has varied greatly since 1970. The largest of all herds (in Taimyr, Russia) has varied between 400,000 and 1,000,000; the second largest herd (at the George River in Canada) has varied between 28,000 and 385,000. Reindeer are good swimmers and, in one case, the entire body of a reindeer was found in the stomach of a Greenland shark ( Somniosus microcephalus), a species found in the far North Atlantic. [194] Other threats [ edit ] Stone's caribou ( R. t. stonei), [106] a large montane type, was described from the Kenai Peninsula (where, apparently, it was never common except in years of great abundance), [84] the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula, and mountains throughout southern and eastern Alaska. [106] It was placed under R. arcticus as a subspecies, [84] R. t. stonei, and later synonymised as noted above. The same genetic analyses mentioned above for R. t. granti [105] resulted in resurrecting R. t. stonei as well. [9]

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In 2011, noting that the former classifications of Rangifer tarandus, either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes, or natural population groupings, failed to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective subspecies conservation and management, COSEWIC developed Designatable Unit (DU) attribution, [34] an adaptation of "evolutionary significant units". [78] The 12 designatable units for caribou in Canada (that is, excluding Alaska and Greenland) based on ecology, behavior and, importantly, genetics (but excluding morphology and archaeology) essentially followed the previously-named subspecies distributions, without naming them as such, plus some ecotypes. Ecotypes are not phylogenetically based and cannot substitute for taxonomy. [79] Reindeer are the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on a large scale in the world, and both wild and domestic reindeer have been an important source of food, clothing, and shelter for Arctic people throughout history and are still herded and hunted today. Wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting." [6] In some traditional Christmas legends, Santa Claus's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to good children on Christmas Eve.the Arctic tundra of the Fennoscandian Peninsula in Norway [8] [90] and the Austfirðir in Iceland (where it has been introduced) [94] When male reindeer shed their antlers in early to mid-winter, the antlered cows acquire the highest ranks in the feeding hierarchy, gaining access to the best forage areas. These cows are healthier than those without antlers. [133] Calves whose mothers do not have antlers are more prone to disease and have a significantly higher mortality. [133] Cows in good nutritional condition, for example, during a mild winter with good winter range quality, may grow new antlers earlier as antler growth requires high intake. [133] A R. t. platyrhynchus skull Naming in this and following sections follows the taxonomy in the authoritative 2011 reference work Handbook of Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals. [8] Antlers [ edit ] Losing the velvet layer under which a new antler is growing, an annual process

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Abbreviations: AMNH the American Museum of Natural History; BCPM the British Columbia Provincial Museum (= RBCM the Royal British Columbia Museum), NHMUK the British Museum (Natural History) (originally the BMNH), DMNH the Denver Museum of Natural History, MCZ the Museum of Comparative Zoology, MSI the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, NMC the National Museum of Canada (originally the CGS Canadian Geological Survey Museum, now the CMN Canadian Museum of Nature), NR the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, RSMNH the Royal Swedish Museum of Natural History, USNM, the U. S. National Museum, ZMASL the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (formerly the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences), Leningrad Eurogamer.net is owned by Gamer Network Limited, a ReedPop company and subsidiary of Reed Exhibitions Limited. Arctic peoples have depended on caribou for food, clothing, and shelter. European prehistoric cave paintings represent both tundra and forest forms, the latter either the Finnish forest reindeer or the narrow-nosed reindeer, an eastern Siberia forest form. [14] Canadian examples include the Caribou Inuit, the inland-dwelling Inuit of the Kivalliq Region in northern Canada, the Caribou Clan in the Yukon, the Iñupiat, the Inuvialuit, the Hän, the Northern Tutchone, and the Gwichʼin (who followed the Porcupine caribou herd for millennia). Hunting wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and sub-Arctic peoples such as the Duhalar for meat, hides [ de], antlers, milk [ ru], and transportation. [6] Jeff, we've never seen a sexy reindeer, but we do understand that Space Giraffe on Xbox Live Arcade divided quite a lot of people. Largest of the caribou, exceeding in measurements the largest specimens of Rangifer osborni and Rangifer montanus."A R. t. pearyi-sized caribou occupied Greenland before and after the LGM and persisted in a relict enclave in northeastern Greenland until it went extinct about 1900 (see discussion of R. t. eogroenlandicus below). Archaeological excavations showed that larger barren-ground-sized caribou appeared in western Greenland about 4,000 years ago. [59]